The world has
almost forgotten, forgotten the way things used to be. We’ve chosen to forget
the ideologies of the world that existed before the bombs, the wars, and the
dark nights. “History is but a myth that mankind has decided as fact” (Assume
2006). After the Great Wars, America wrote the world’s history, and later with
the fall of Communism, capitalism under the guise of freedom and democracy
became the world ideology (Steger, 2009).
Its goal, globalization, and spreading the ideology around the world. As
with any ideology, there are those who may choose to oppose it, to challenge
it, and therefore, it should come as no surprise that International Public
Relations was created by western powers to combat dissent to the Western
Narrative. Utilising Herman’s and Chomsky’s Propaganda Model we can layout the
framework for why public relations is inherently westernised, and that media is
embedded into the markets system as a result of capitalism dominance (Herman
2003).
One
could argue that public relations are talents which the human species are
innately born with, and that this gift has existed since we first crawled out
from the cave. However, our self-awareness of these abilities, and our choice
to study and refine them into a skilled trade began just after the First World
War with the father of Public Relations, Basil Clarke. Clarke whose background
was in journalism, eventually joined the British government in propaganda
wartime efforts, and later developed his Little White Book, that split the
field of Public Relations off from publicity (L’Etang, 2004). Indeed, by 1921 Walter Lippman, an American
political commenter, recognized the phenomenon of “manufacturing consent” as a
“self-conscience art and regular organ of popular government” (Lippman 1921:248
cited in Herman 2003).
By
World War II, propaganda had become such a vital part of the war on all sides
that it is no surprise that it was continued and incorporated into the global
ideology set by the winners after the war.
While the Western Allies as a whole can claim victory, even in the best of
cases, Europe was devastated. Economies destroyed, infrastructure in ruin, the
only country to find relative prosperity in the wake of the Second Great War
was the United States. Indeed, Europe would be rebuilt; it would rise again,
fashioned from American goods, purchased with the dollar, loaned under the
Marshall Plan. The Marshall plan set the rules for free-trade and “democracy”
with its new American Capitalist ideology at its core as a condition for
receiving the aid (Steger 2009).
This
new world ideology moved Europe further away from its former protectionist
roots, and polarized the world into an us (capitalism) versus them (Socialism ,
Marxism, Communism) war of the mind. It
would create a new type of war built on fear, propaganda, and international
communications. There would be no lack of a need for individuals capable of
traversing the murky waters of the Cold War, and unsurprisingly, this same
tactic became an efficient bleed-down of Military application into commercial
markets. Company’s wishing to conquer new lands would employ the same skills as
they had in war efforts to combat corporate dissent, increase brand awareness,
and ultimately create profitability in both domestic and foreign markets.
Indeed, Thomas Ferguson goes as far to say that news-media, controlled by
profit maximizing investors, limits dissemination of news that negatively portrays
this “specialized class” as they employ their communications (Ferguson 1996:
400 cited in Herman 2003).
If
Public Relations serve as a conduit for communications between Western Ideology
and the world, how do we measure its effectiveness? Generally, we can see the
global reach of capitalism even in those who oppose the ideology. In 2001, Al Qaeda’s anti-Western sentiment
was expressed when Obama Bin Laden dished out his own public relations video to
state-ran Aljazeera. The enemy of the democracy and freedom, Laden, dressed in
Western style fatigues, carrying a modern assault weapon, and wearing the
latest designer watch, failed to see the irony in his folly (Steger 2009). What
it proves is that the spread of western influence and even public relations
(basically what Laden was doing) has become such a part of the world that its
Western roots are undeniably embedded within the human experience to the point
that we’ve forgotten what the world looks like without it (Ibid.).
Some
might argue that the westernization of public relations within individual
countries is therefore tied to its political and economic structure. The more
along the spectrum of democracy and capitalism a country is, the more likely it
is to perceive public relations as a Western construct. Clearly, in more
socialized democracies, trust, truth, and integrity are more integral to what’s
defined as public relations. Yet even within these variants of moralized public
relations, we find admission of these concepts as being in conflict with stereotypes
and established perceptions. It is important to remember that these concepts
set forth by individuals such as John W. Hill, manufactures idealistic
portrayals of an industry which may or may not actual function within these
ideals (Heath & Bowen 2002). These
variants of Bernay’s “public be damned” have attempted to legitimize the
industry within a moral framework despite critics’ responses that Public
Relations is merely lying. (Cutlip et al., 2006). Kantonian principles allow
for this evolution of the industry for the betterment of mankind, and
certainly, Kant would argue that deception limits trust and autonomy, but pragmatically,
psychologists would remind us that a certain amount of distortion is beneficial
for social relations (Bivins 2008; KrajczyĆska
2012). Indeed, if we’re to argue that Public Relations was birthed out
of Western propaganda, we must accept that communication in general is
inherently paradoxical, and that the components of ethical behaviour and speech
include a moral behaviour of Noble Lies. Confused? Consider this quote, “in
some circumstances, it may be that a polite smile or [that] tactfully keeping
quiet may be more conducive to your well-being than saying what you actually
think and feel.” (Wardrop 2012). Indeed, research by Doctor Olivia
Robinson at the University of Greenwich determined that often expressing truth
or being factual about one’s own self led to less financial success (Ibid.).
Therefore, it should come as no surprise, telling your fat friend that they
“look smashingly thin today”, is “ethically” better than telling them the
truth.
Many
examples exist within the modern context to suggest the games of early Public
Relations are still in play. From Clinton’s “I did not have sexual relations”,
to Bush’s declaration in favour of disarming Iraq of its (now realized)
non-existent weapons of mass-destruction. Does Coke really refresh you with its
diabetic inducing sugar and caffeine, or does the burger from McDonald’s ever look
like the one in the advertisements (Morris 2013)? Are we to believe that scandals
and cover-ups aren’t part of modern public relations? “It’s as safe as Dawn dishwashing liquid.”, a BP
representative stated referring to the rainbow gunk created in the wake of the
oil disaster (Hertsgaard 2013). Indeed, propaganda is alive and well even
within immoral truth. In 2001, Philip Morris commissioned a report labelled the
Public Finance of Smoking in the Czech Republic which found the increased
mortality rate caused by smoking reduced pension pay-outs and decreased
national health-cost, thereby providing a net financial advantage to the
country (Morris 2001).
To
further satisfy this argument that propaganda is alive and well in the modern
age, we only need to look at democracy’s favourite weapon: Photoshop. In
contrast of the war-time posters that personified the German enemy as animals,
today’s caricatures range from unattainable body images on magazines, to fake
military jets (and rockets, and space monkeys,) that Iran uses to demonstrate
its military “superiority” (Fitzgerald
2013). Each of these entities strives to sell or promote the image
within our globalized economy of democracy and freedom to compete against the
Western hegemony. When China tried to pass off scenes from the blockbuster
movie Top Gun to demonstrate its military capabilities, it failed to see the
irony in their Communistic endeavors against the west utilising a Hollywood
film (Ibid.).
Of
course, for those of us residing in the West it is important to recognize our
own humility as we desperately cling to what personal self-respect we may have
for ourselves. Chomsky himself, while suggesting “responsibility among
intellectuals”, manifests the hidden realities of public relations, lifting the
guise, so that we’re now forced to be accountable, while consequentially
outlining a model for applying such deceptions, and to which we previously may
have been naĂŻve to (Chomsky 1967).
Indeed,
such western discourse has been the result of turning conversation into math
through Communications Theory. Today, these propaganda statements, Photoshops,
and generalized shades of grey result in effective communication for the
greater good, often communicated through these entropic and metaphysical
channels (Littlejohn 2008).
In
Chinese culture, communications resemble less of the western mathematical
approach and more that of a ritual (Huang 2003). Despite Huang’s suggestion
that the West’s approach is simply for information exchange and that Eastern
communications is more about relationships (guansi), social penetration has
been a military phenomenon since the first undercover-agents, and an established
mainstream psychological theory since the seventies by a New Yorker social
scientists Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor
(Altman & Taylor 1973).
While Huang attempts to differentiate the Eastern relationship from western
communication, the repetitive use of western theory suggests the only vocabulary
to describe Eastern communication is through a Western “dictionary” (Huang
2003). While there’s little doubt that
Eastern public relations has existed, the East has chosen to adopt western
language, hybrid capitalism, and westernized public relations. One need only
needs to visit a Western-style University course in Public Relations to see the
large number of Chinese students ready to adopt western thought.
Interestingly,
ritual plays a huge part in Western Public Relations in the form of the apologia
(Hearit 1994). In a case study between three international companies (Chrysler,
Toshiba, and Volvo) during a crisis, it was determined that each company chose
to use this ritual to manage their crisis (Ibid.). What varied was the approach
to admission of responsibility and the amount of regret to re-establish their
reputations. When Chrysler’s odometers were found to be disconnected,
Chrysler’s C.E.O. chose to have a frank conversation with the public. He insisted
the consequences of their actions were minimal, and they’d gladly replace any
vehicle involved in their “testing” (Ibid). Japanese Toshiba was caught selling
to the Soviets and decided to deny their actions as the U.S. voted to
immediately ban Toshiba products within their country as a reactionary
countermeasure (Ibid.). Lastly, Swedish Volvo after falsely staging a
monster-truck rally that couldn’t crush their vehicle (because it was
re-enforced) decided to re-label the event a “dramatization” in response to
charges of deceptive advertising (Ibid). While each company dealt with the
crisis in their own unique method, what is abundantly clear, is how each of
these companies were in the end forced to conform to Western standards of
public relations through their modified message. The result of non-conformity
could have resulted in law-suits or product bans within the United States and
its allies (e.g. the Axis of Freedom).
In
fact, it is all a war game. As modern
public relations began to take shape during wartime, America was already preparing for its neo-colonial empire
of capitalistic domination and its need for its new Public Relations skillset. In
1922, U.S. Senator Beveridge declared “He has
made us adept in government that we may administer government among savage and
senile peoples! He has marked the American people as His chosen nation to
finally lead in the redemption of the world!” (Beveridge A. cited in Hyser & Arndt 2007). Almost a century later this same
sentiment applies to western rhetoric within the western pursuit of capitalism
guised under “freedom’s triumph” (Steger 2009). What sounds like a coy public
relations campaign is in actuality part of the Defence Planning Guide drafted
under U.S. Defence Secretary Paul Wolfowitz, and which become foreign policy
under the Bush regime. The goal was to protect American interests and deter
competitors, pre-emptively and military “including western European allies”
from aspiring for a “larger or global role” (Steger 2009). In effect,
democracy, freedom, and westernized public relations were now the standard of
the globalized economy now dictated by the victors of global warfare.
In
conclusion, the story of mankind is the story of our global village finding a
shared voice through the common language of International Public Relations and
Global Communications.
.
Citations:
Altman, I., & Taylor, D. 1973. Social penetration: The development
of interpersonal
relationships. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
Assume The Position with Mr Wuhl 2006, film, Frazer Pennebaker, New York University
Bivins T. 2008. Lying
and Transparency. The Ethics of
Strategic Communications. Oregon
University, School of Journalism and
Communications.
Chomsky, N. 1967. The Responsibility of Intellectuals. The New York Review of Books.
Available at:
www.chomsky.info/articles/19670223.htm [Accessed: 2.12.14]
Cutlip et al.
2006. Effective Public Relations Ninth Edition . Pearson Prentice Hall.
Fitzgerald, A. 2013. 10
Recent Propaganda Pieces That Were Lies. Listverse.
Available at:
http://listverse.com/2013/03/23/10-recent-propaganda-pieces-that-were-lies/
[Accessed: 2.12.14]
Heath, R. L., & Bowen, S. A. 2002. The public
relations philosophy of John W. Hill:
Bricks in the foundation of issues
management. Journal of Public Affairs, 2(4), 230-246.
Hearit, K. 1994. Apologies
and Public Relations Crises at Chrysler, Toshiba, and Volvo.
Public Relations Review, 20(2) 113-125.
Hertsgaard, M. 2013. The
worst part about BP’s oil-spill cover-up: It worked. Grist.
Available at:
http://grist.org/business-technology/what-bp-doesnt-want-you-to-know-about-the-2010-gulf-of-mexico-spill/
[Accessed: 2.12.14]
Huang, H. 2003. Asian
Approaches to Human Communication. Intercultural Communication
Studies
XII-4.
KrajczyĆska, E. 2012. Psychologist:
lying is necessary for maintaining good social relations.
Ministry of Science and Higher Education,
Republic of Poland. Available at:
www.naukawpolsce.pap.pl/en/news/news,388482,psychologist-lying-is-necessary-for-maintaining-good-social-relations.html
[Accessed: 2.12.14]
Littlejohn, Stephen; Foss, Karen 2008. Theories of Human Communication (9 ed.).
Thomson and Wadsworth.
L'Etang,
J. 2004. Public relations in Britain. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Morris
M. 2013. 10 Advertising
Lies We’ve All Been Fed. Listserve.
Available at:
listverse.com/2013/01/22/10-advertising-lies-weve-all-been-fed/ [Accessed: 2.12.14].
Morris, Philip 2001. Public
Finance Balance of Smoking in the Czech Republic. Available at:
http://edition.cnn.com/2001/BUSINESS/07/16/czech.morris/study.doc
[Accessed: 2.12.14].
Boston: Cenegage Learning. Volume 2
Steger, M. and Steger, M. 2009.
Globalisms. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield
Publishers.
Herman, E. 2003. The Propaganda Model: A Retrospective. Against
All Reason. Available
at: www.chomsky.info/onchomsky/20031209.htm
[Accessed: 2.12.14]
Wardrop, M. 2012. Being yourself at work is not good for your
career,
study claims. Independent
IE. Available at: www.independent.ie/health/health-news/being-yourself-at-work-is-not-good-for-your-career-study-claims-3085679.html
[accessed 20.11 2014].